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題目：Retrofitting tubular steel T-joints subjected to axial compression in chord and brace members using bonded FRP plates or through-wall steel bolts a b s t r a c t：T-joints of Hollow Steel Sections (HSSs) are vulnerable to local instabilities of the web under the orthogonal compression in both members. Unlike W-sections stiffeners cannot be installed inside the closed sections. Therefore, alternative strengthening methods are needed. This experimental study explored the effectiveness of two retrofitting methods by controlling the web buckling of the longitudinally compressed 203 76 3.09 mm chord, which is also subjected to transverse axial compression loading through the brace member. The web height-to-wall thickness (h/t) ratio of the chord is 65. In the first method, 8 mm diameter through-wall steel bolts were used to brace the webs of the chord at the vicinity of the brace. In the second method, 76 185 9.5 mm glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) plates were adhesively bonded to the two webs of the chord at the brace location. Two levels of sustained axial compression load were induced in the chord, representing 45% and 80% of its full axial capacity, in addition to control specimens without axial loads. The transverse brace load was then gradually increased to failure.The through-wall steel bolts increased the joint capacity by 13–25%, depending on the chord’s axial load level, while the bonded GFRP plate increased the capacity by 38–46%. 1. Introduction Tubular steel structures are commonly used in the form of trusses, vierendeel girders, and frames. The connection between the chord and vertical member (brace) in vierendeel girders and at mid-span of N-trusses, or between beam and column in frames, take the form of a T-joint. The capacity of the structure may be governed by the strength of its joints. Therefore, upgrading the joint capacity may be essential in certain structures, particularly if the members have been upgraded. This is crucial in thin-walled members, where the bearing of the brace member on the chord member produces web crippling of the thin walls of the chord. Unlike steel W- and S-sections, it is not possible to install steel web stiffeners inside tubular sections. In offshore structures with circular tubes, the commonly used concepts include the ‘can’ whereby the chord members are partially thickened at the joints, or the ‘doubler plate’, sometimes slightly modified to a system referred to as the ‘collar’, where the brace is welded directly to the doubler plate through a penetration weld, whereas the doubler plate is fillet-welded to the chord [1]. It should be noted that all these strengthening techniques are primarily used in circular hollow sections, commonly used in offshore structures. For Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHSs), different strengthening techniques may be employed. Failure of the chord side walls by yielding or crippling is the most common for T-, Y- and X-joints, especially when their b ratios (breadth of brace/breadth of chord) are close or equal to unity. Welded rectangular HSS T-joints have been studied experimentally by a number of researchers in the past (e.g. [2,3]). When b is within 0.8 and 1.0, web buckling normally governs. When b is less than 0.8, the failure modes depend on the chord flange width-to-chord thickness ratio. A deformation limit, in the form of the level of local indentation of flange chord face, is adopted in the design of welded tubular joints as described in the latest IIW static design procedures for welded tubular joints [4–6]. Filling hollow sections with concrete to improve the web crippling behavior was found to be efficient [7]. Another technique was adopted [8,9], where a single bolt was used to brace the chord sidewalls against the outward buckling, and resulted in an increase of 18% in capacity. Another study [10] recommended that a wooden brace be inserted into the RHS in addition to the through-wall bolt to avoid the inward buckling of the chord sidewalls. The use of externally bonded fiber reinforced polymers (FRPs) laminates has also been successfully used to strengthen HSS columns against global buckling [11]. Limited work addressed local instabilities of HSS members. For example, a study [12] demonstrated the benefits of using carbon-FRP wraps to control web crippling of HSS sections under end bearing. Another study [13] investigated axially loaded carbon-FRP-wrapped short HSS columns to control local buckling. Two previous studies by the authors on the subject [14,15] investigated the strengthening of T-joints comprising RHS chord and HSS brace members, where the brace was gradually loaded axially to failure. The chord members did not include any axial compression loads; hence simulating a beam-column joint in a frame system. This paper also investigates the strengthening of T-joints but with sustained axial compression loads in the chord members, while the brace member is gradually loaded to failure. This simulates joints in trusses or vierandeel girders, where the combined longitudinal and transverse compression loads is more critical to web stability at the T-joint. Both through-wall steel bolts and adhesively bonded GFRP plates techniques are investigated. The two techniques were selected for two reasons, namely, the ease and simplicity of installation, and suitability to the geometric nature of the section. Both techniques have minimal impact on the esthetic appearance of RHS sections. Unlike W-sections, welded steel stiffeners to the web at the joint are not convenient for RHS sections. The study also addresses the effect of the level of sustained axial compression in the chord on the strengthening effectiveness. 2. Experimental program The following sections describe test specimens and parameters, material properties, fabrication of specimens, test setup and instrumentation. 2.1. Test specimens and parameters Table 1 provides a summary of the test matrix. T-joints were fabricated and tested under combined brace and chord axial compression loads. The T-joint consisted of a horizontal, 1220 mm long chord member welded to a 400 mm long brace member (Fig. 1a). Two key parameters were explored, namely, the type of retrofitting reinforcement (through-wall steel bolts and adhesively bonded GFRP plates (Fig. 1b), and the level of axial load in the chord member. The chord member was a 203 76 3.09 mm RHS, with an (h/t) ratio of 65. This section is classified as class 4 in accordance with CAN/CSA-S16-01 [16] based on the web (h/t) ratio. The brace member was a 76 76 8.9 mm HSS with a thick wall to avoid failure of the brace. The study included three control specimens, one with no axial load in the chord (T1), one with 200 kN (T2), and one with 350 kN (T3). The axial compression loads in specimens T2 and T3 represent 45% and 80%, respectively, of the pure axial strength of the chord, calculated according to CAN/CSA-S16- 01 [16]. The chord loads were kept constant during gradual application of the load on the brace member to failure. Specimens T4–T6 are counterparts of specimens T1–T3 and were retrofitted with the through-wall steel bolts system (configuration A in Fig. 1b), where the two bolts were located directly below the brace member, 40 mm below the compression flange of the chord, where the maximum local buckling was expected in the chord. Specimens T7–T9 are also counterparts of T1–T3 and were retrofitted by two 76 185 9.5 mm adhesively bonded GFRP plates, one on each web, directly below the brace member (configuration B in Fig. 1b). A previous study [15] has compared GFRP and CFRP plates. It was shown that thick GFRP plates, which are more economical than CFRP, are more effective in mitigating local buckling in these T-joints. 2.2. Material properties 2.2.1. Cold-formed tubular sections Two types of HSS sections were used, a rectangular one (RHS), 203 76 3.09 mm, for the chord, and a square (SHS) 76 76 8.9 mm section for the brace. Both the RHS and SHS were manufactured in accordance with ASTM A500 C [17]. Uniaxial tension tests were performed according to ASTM E8/E8M-09 [18] on dog-bone coupons cut from the flange and the web of the RHS chord. A 50 mm extensometer was used to measure and record strains. The stress–strain plots for the steel coupons are shown in Fig. 2. The yield strength (offset secant at 0.2%) and modulus of the chord were 426 MPa and 209 GPa. The reported characteristic yield strength by manufacturer was 410 MPa.2.2.2. Through-wall bolts The bolts used in the strengthened specimens are standard 8 mm diameter (Grade 8) high-strength bolts with a reported yield and ultimate strengths of 896 and 1034 MPa, respectively. 2.2.3. GFRP plates A 9.5 mm thick commercially available GFRP plate was used. It consists of alternating layers of unidirectional E-glass roving and random mats impregnated with polyester resin. The manufacturer reported longitudinal and transverse tensile strengths of 138 and 69 MPa, and moduli of 12.4 and 6.9 GPa, respectively. The reported longitudinal and transverse compressive strengths and modului by the manufacturer are 165 and 110 MPa and 12.4 and 6.9 GPa, respectively. To confirm these results, three coupons were cut from the plates and tested in tension in the longitudinal direction according to ASTM D3039/D3039M [19]. The stress–strain curves are shown in Fig. 2. The average longitudinal tensile strength and elastic modulus were 268 MPa and 20.6 GPa, respectively.Table 1 Test matrix. Specimen ID Chord wall thickness (mm) Retrifitting system and configuration Axial compression Load of Chord (kN) Maximum transverse Load (kN) % Age gain in strength T1a 0 131.1 – T2 N/A (control) 200 103.8 – T3 350 58.3 – T4a 3.09 0 164.3 25.3 T5 2 Bolts (Config. A in Fig. 1) 200 116.9 12.6 T6 350 66.0 13.2 T7b 76 185 9.3 mm GFRP Plate (Config. B in Fig. 1) 0 180.9 38.0 T8 200 151.6 46.1 T9 350 80.6 38.3 a Aguilera et al. [14]. b Aguilera and Fam [15]. J. Aguilera, A. Fam / Engineering Structures 48 (2013) 602–610 603 2.2.4. Adhesive The adhesive used for bonding the GFRP plates to the steel specimens was Weld-On SS620. It is comprised of two components, namely an adhesive (SS620-A) and an activator (SS620-B) mixed at a 10:1 ratio. The reported tensile strength is 18–21 MPa and the lap shear strength is 19–22 MPa. 2.3. Fabrication of T-joint specimens The chord and brace members were cut to lengths of 1220 and 400 mm, respectively. The SHS brace member was directly welded to the flange of the RHS chord member at mid-length. Cutting and welding of specimens were performed by a professional, at a machine shop. The holes necessary for the bolts to pass through the chord in retrofitting configuration A were then hand drilled in both webs. The 8 mm Grade 8 high-strength headed bolts were then inserted into the holes and anchored from one side using a special washer and nut for a snug fit. Special care was taken in order not to over tighten the nut and cause inward buckling of the two webs.This was accomplished by manual tightening of the nut until slack with removed between the washer and the web of the section, but no pretension was applied to the bolt. For retrofitting configuration B, specimens were first sandblasted to prepare the surface and were cleaned with acetone to remove any dirt or debris. The GFRP plates were then sanded with fine grit sandpaper to remove the smooth polymeric coating and were cleaned with isopropyl alcohol. The adhesive was then applied to the surfaces and the FRP plates were positioned and pressed to maintain a consistent thickness of adhesive. After curing, and before testing, vertical stiffener steel plates, 110 191 12 mm, were inserted inside the chord member at both ends (Fig. 3) to prevent premature failure due to crippling at supports. 2.4. Test setup and Instrumentation The axial compression load in the chord was first applied through a 25 mm diameter high strength threaded rod positioned concentrically inside the RHS chord member. The rod was anchored against the RHS section on one end using a large load cell with a central hole and was tensioned from the other end against an end steel plate using a hydraulic ram (Fig. 3a). At both ends, the rod was anchored using a special nut and washer system of spherical surfaces (Fig. 3a), which was also lubricated. This was to prevent any bending in the threaded rod, which could contribute to the flexural capacity of the RHS chord member during transverse loading on the brace member. After loading the chord to the desired axial force, the brace was concentrically loaded to failure using a 1000 kN Riehle testing machine (Fig. 3b), at a 1 mm/min rate. The brace was clamped at both ends using a special assembly of heavy SHS sections and threaded rods. First, the specimen was rested on two 150 150 12 mm HSS supports. The two supports were set apart to provide a clear span (L) of 1000 mm, which is almost five times the chord depth (h) of 203 mm. Another two SHS sections were set on top of the specimens ends. The two upper SHSs were held down and anchored to the Riehle testing machine using two vertical 25.4 mm diameter threaded rods at each support. The threaded rods were evenly hand tightened using wrenches. This span-to-depth (L/h) ratio of the chord was carefully selected as per recommendations in the literature. The UK Department of Energy Offshore Technology Report [20] and other researchers [21] suggested that (L/h) ratio should not be less than four, in order to avoid any effect of supports on the joint strength. On the other hand, others [22] indicated that the (L/h) ratio should not be excessive, otherwise chord failure may occur prior to joint failure as the plastic moment of the chord cross-section at the crown location is reached. Some researchers [23] have indicated a limit of 5.75 for (L/h) to ensure joint failure. In this study, the (L/h) ratio of 5 was used. Some end fixities were provided by clamping, to increase the load at which yield and plastic moments occur, in order to focus on the stability aspect of joint strength. Two 100 mm linear potentiometers (LPs) were mounted at the upper and lower flanges of the chord member at mid-span, to measure the vertical deflection of the top and bottom flanges independently (Fig. 3b). These two deflections may differ as the chord sidewalls buckle. Four additional LPs were mounted in a horizontal fashion to measure the slip of the ends of the chord specimens. The strains on the chord, in two directions, and on some through-wall bolts, were measured using 5 mm electric resistance strain gauges. Fig. 4 shows the locations of strain gauges on the chord. 3. Results of the experimental program Table 1 provides a summary of the experimental results, in terms of the maximum load achieved and the percentage of gain in strength of retrofitted specimens relative to their control counterparts. Fig. 5 provides the load–deflection responses of all specimens. Fig. 6 demonstrates the stability of axial force in chord members during the transverse loading of the specimen. Fig. 7 summarizes the study by showing the interaction diagram of axial and lateral loads in the chord at peak values for control and retrofitted specimens. Fig. 8 shows the load–strain responses. Fig. 9 depicts the end slip of the top and bottom flanges of the chord member at the supports. Figs. 10–12 show the various failure modes of the control and retrofitted specimens. The following sections describe in details the test results and effect of various parameters on performance. 3.1. Load–deflection behavior Fig. 5 shows the load–deflection responses of all test specimens based on both the top and bottom flanges in each specimen (except in specimen T3 in which only top flange deflection was recorded). Generally, the load ascends almost linearly initially, followed by a non-linear behavior until a peak load is reached and then a descending response can be observed with various degrees of nonlinearity. This general trend is similar in both control and retrofitted specimens, regardless of chord axial load level or method of retrofitting, except that the peak load was increased in retrofitted specimens. The peak load consistently corresponds to instability failure of the webs of the chord, or buckling of the top flange. It should be noted that while the retrofitting system enhances strength, it has virtually no effect on the initial stiffness or ductility of the member. For each specimen, the deflection of the top and bottom flanges of the chord differed slightly at any given load, as a result of the out-of-plane displacements of the vertical webs. This effect becomes more pronounced near the peak load and even more in the descending part of the response. Although no specific link exists in this study between the GFRP plate and the through steel bolts designs, it can be noticed that the GFRP plate (specimen T7) provided an enhanced post-peak deformation capacity relative to the steel bolts (specimen T4) at zero axial loads in the chord. Fig. 6 shows the variations of the axial force in the chord with deflection. Also shown are the transverse load–deflection curves. Specimens T4 and T5 with through-wall bolts had both sidewalls forced to displace laterally in the same direction, by having one of the sidewalls buckling outward, and the other side buckled inward (Fig. 11a and b). Specimen T6 had the web fail by inward buckling just below the brace and outward buckling in the adjacent region (Fig. 11c). In specimen T7 with bonded GFRP plate, the outward buckling of the web was shifted just beyond the GFRP plate on one side and occurred in both webs (Fig. 12a). Also, the top flange buckled inwards. As axial load was introduced in specimens T8 and T9, web buckling shifted inwards, while top flange buckling shifted outwards (Fig. 12b and c). It is well established that geometric compatibility dictates that the local buckling of the web and flange occur in opposite directions. It should be noted that once the peak loads were reached in all axially loaded specimens, and due to local buckling occurrences, an increased overall axial shortening occurred in the chords. To avoid excessive loss of axial force due to this shortening, a faster rate of jacking was needed for the hydraulic ram to maintain the axial force. As shown in Fig. 6, this approach led to a steady level of axial compression in all axially loaded specimens. This was particularly important at the range where peak loads occurred. 4. Conclusions Based on this experimental study on T-joints in which the chord member was a Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS) with (h/t) ratio of 65 and subjected to various levels of axial compression loads, and the brace member was an axially loaded Square Hollow Section (SHS), the following conclusions are drawn: 1. Both methods investigated, namely through-wall steel bolts and bonded GFRP plates, are practical in retrofitting RHS chord members in T-joints under brace and chord axial compression loads. Generally, the FRP plating technique was more effective than the through-wall bolts technique, especially at higher axial loads in chord. 2. Using through-wall steel bolts retrofitting system, the joint strength was increased by 25%, 13% and 13% when the axial compression loads in the chord were zero, 45% and 80% of its pure axial strength, respectively. 3. Using bonded GFRP plates as a retrofitting system, the joint strength was increased by 38%, 46% and 38% when the axial compression loads in the chord were zero, 45% and 80% of its pure axial strength, respectively. 4. In general, the transverse load capacity of the chord reduces as the axial compression load increases, for both control and retrofitted specimens. 5. The peak loads reached in all control and retrofitted specimens were associated with stability failure in the form of local buckling in the webs and compression flange of the chord. In retrofitted specimens, the local buckling was shifted laterally, away from the vicinity of the brace, leading to the higher strength. 6. Generally, local buckling occurred before or just at yielding of the chord member at the joint. Therefore, for the (h/t) ratio used in this study, it can be concluded that the retrofitting technique enhanced strength significantly but did not allow the chord to exceed yielding. The authors are currently extending this research through finite element modeling to capture the observed behavior accurately and then carryout a parametric study to consider the effects of the following parameters on the strengthening effectiveness: (a) heightto- width ratio of the chord, (b) height of the chord-to-breadth of the brace ratio, (c) span-to-depth ratio of the chord and (d) boundary conditions, including the two extreme cases of fully hinged and fully fixed. The results of the parametric study should facilitate the development of design guides guidelines. References [1] Choo YS, Li BH, Liew JYR, van der Vegte GJ, Zettlemoyer N. Static strength of Tjoints reinforced with doubler or collar plates. In: Eighth international symposium on tubular structures. Singapore; 1998. [2] Kato B, Nishiyama I. The static strength of R.R. joints with large beta ratio. CIDECT program 5Y report. Japan: Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, University of Tokyo; 1979. [3] Zhao XL, Hancock GJ. T-joints in rectangular hollow sections subject to combined actions. J Struct Eng ASCE 1991;117(8):2258–77. [4] Zhao XL, Wardenier J, Packer JA, van der Vegte GJ. Current static design guidelines for hollow section joints. Struct Build 2010;163(6):363–73 [Institution of Civil Engineers, UK]. [5] Lu LH, de Winkel GD, Yu Y, Wardenier J. Deformation limit for the ultimate strength of hollow section joints. In: Proceedings of the 6th international symposium on tubular structures, Melbourne. Balkema, Rotterdam; 1994. p. 341–8. [6] Zhao XL. Deformation limit and ultimate strength of welded T-joints in coldformed RHS sections. J Construct Steel Res 2000;53(2):149–65. [7] Packer JA. Concrete-filled HSS connections. J Struct Eng ASCE 1995;121(3):458–67. [8] Bains S. Investigating into the effects of through bolting on rectangular hollow steel beams in flexure. PhD Thesis, UK: University of Sussex; 1983. [9] Bradfield CD, Morrell, PJB, Ibrahim A. Improvements in the flexural capacity of rectangular hollow sections by through bolting. Tubular Struct 1994:109–14 [Rotterdam, Balkema]. [10] Zhao XL. Partially stiffened RHS sections under transverse bearing force. Thin- Walled Struct 1999;35:193–204. [11] Shaat A, Fam A. Slender steel columns strengthened using high modulus CFRP plates for buckling control. ASCE J Compos Construct 2009;13(1): 2–12. [12] Zhao XL, Fernando Dilum, Al-Mahaidi Riadh. CFRP strengthened RHS subjected to transverse end bearing force. Eng Struct 2006;28:1555–65. [13] Shaat A, Fam A. Axial loading tests on short and long hollow structural steel columns retrofitted using carbon fibre reinforced polymers. Can J Civil Eng Spec Issue Rec Adv Steel Struct Res 2006;33(4):458–70. [14] Aguilera J, Shaat A, Fam A. Strengthening T-joints of rectangular hollow steel sections against web buckling under brace axial compression using throughwall bolts. Thin-Walled Struct 2012;56:71–8. [15] Aguilera J, Fam A. Bonded FRP plates for strengthening rectangular hollow steel section T-joints against web buckling induced by transverse compression. ASCE J Compos Construct; in press [May 17]. [16] Canadian Standards Association, CAN/CSA-S16-01. Limit states design of steel structures, Mississauga, Ontario. [17] ASTM A500. Standard specification for cold-formed welded and seamless carbon steel structural tubing in rounds and shapes. [18] ASTM E8/E8M–09. Standard test methods for tension testing of metallic materials. [19] ASTM D3039/D3039M. Standard test method for tensile properties of polymer matrix composite materials. [20] UK Department of Energy Offshore Technology Report, Background to new static strength guidance for tubular joints in steel offshore structures. OTH 89 308, DoN, UK; 1990. [21] Moffat DG, Kruzelecki J, Blachut J. The effects of chord length and boundary conditions on the static strength of tubular T-joints under brace compression loading. Marine Structures 1996;9:935–47. [22] Lalani M. Developments in tubular joints technology for offshore structures. In: Proc. 2nd int. offshore and polar engineering conference, San Francisco; 14–19 June 1992. [23] Madros MSZ, Zettlemoyer N, Healy BE. Effect of chord can length on strength of T joints. In: Proceeding of the 27th annual offshore technology conference (OTC); 1995 Huston, TX, USA [May 1–4 |
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