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[資源]
Foundations.of.Geometry,.Gerard.Venema,.2ed,.Pearson,.2012
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Contents Preface ix 1 Prologue: Euclid’s Elements 1 1.1 Geometry before Euclid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 The logical structure of Euclid’s Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3 The historical significance of Euclid’s Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.4 A look at Book I of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.5 A critique of Euclid’s Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.6 Final observations about the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2 Axiomatic Systems and Incidence Geometry 14 2.1 The structure of an axiomatic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.2 An example: Incidence geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.3 The parallel postulates in incidence geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.4 Axiomatic systems and the real world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.5 Theorems, proofs, and logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.6 Some theorems from incidence geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3 Axioms for Plane Geometry 35 3.1 The undefined terms and two fundamental axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.2 Distance and the Ruler Postulate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.3 Plane separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.4 Angle measure and the Protractor Postulate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.5 The Crossbar Theorem and the Linear Pair Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.6 The Side-Angle-Side Postulate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.7 The parallel postulates and models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4 Neutral Geometry 69 4.1 The Exterior Angle Theorem and existence of perpendiculars . . . . . . . . 70 4.2 Triangle congruence conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 4.3 Three inequalities for triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.4 The Alternate Interior Angles Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.5 The Saccheri-Legendre Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.6 Quadrilaterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 4.7 Statements equivalent to the Euclidean Parallel Postulate . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.8 Rectangles and defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4.9 The Universal Hyperbolic Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 5 Euclidean Geometry 106 5.1 Basic theorems of Euclidean geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 5.2 The Parallel Projection Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 5.3 Similar triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 5.4 The Pythagorean Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 5.5 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 5.6 Exploring the Euclidean geometry of the triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 v vi Contents 6 Hyperbolic Geometry 131 6.1 Basic theorems of hyperbolic geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 6.2 Common perpendiculars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6.3 The angle of parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 6.4 Limiting parallel rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 6.5 Asymptotic triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 6.6 The classification of parallels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 6.7 Properties of the critical function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 6.8 The defect of a triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 6.9 Is the real world hyperbolic? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 7 Area 167 7.1 The Neutral Area Postulate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 7.2 Area in Euclidean geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 7.3 Dissection theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 7.4 Proof of the dissection theorem in Euclidean geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 7.5 The associated Saccheri quadrilateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 7.6 Area and defect in hyperbolic geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 8 Circles 195 8.1 Circles and lines in neutral geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 8.2 Circles and triangles in neutral geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 8.3 Circles in Euclidean geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 8.4 Circular continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 8.5 Circumference and area of Euclidean circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 8.6 Exploring Euclidean circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 9 Constructions 228 9.1 Compass and straightedge constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 9.2 Neutral constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 9.3 Euclidean constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 9.4 Construction of regular polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 9.5 Area constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 9.6 Three impossible constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 10 Transformations 245 10.1 Properties of isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 10.2 Rotations, translations, and glide reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 10.3 Classification of Euclidean motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 10.4 Classification of hyperbolic motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 10.5 A transformational approach to the foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 10.6 Similarity transformations in Euclidean geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 10.7 Euclidean inversions in circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 11 Models 287 11.1 The Cartesian model for Euclidean geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 11.2 The Poincar´e disk model for hyperbolic geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 11.3 Other models for hyperbolic geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 11.4 Models for elliptic geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 12 Polygonal Models and the Geometry of Space 303 12.1 Curved surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Contents vii 12.2 Approximate models for the hyperbolic plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 12.3 Geometric surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 12.4 The geometry of the universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 12.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 12.6 Further study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 12.7 Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 APPENDICES A Euclid’s Book I 344 A.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 A.2 Postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 A.3 Common Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 A.4 Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 B Systems of Axioms for Geometry 350 B.1 Hilbert’s axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 B.2 Birkhoff’s axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 B.3 MacLane’s axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 B.4 SMSG axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 B.5 UCSMP axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 C The Postulates Used in this Book 360 C.1 Criteria used in selecting the postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 C.2 Statements of the postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 C.3 Logical relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 D The van Hiele Model 365 E Set Notation and the Real Numbers 366 E.1 Some elementary set theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 E.2 Axioms for the real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 E.3 Properties of the real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 E.4 One-to-one and onto functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 E.5 Continuous functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 F Hints for Selected Exercises 372 Bibliography 379 Index 382 |
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