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分享本書：Soil and Plant Analysis for Forest Ecosystem Characterization
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Soil and Plant Analysis for Forest Ecosystem Characterization Contents Part I Context of Soil and Plant Analysis 1 1 Overview of Soil and Plant Analysis for Forest Ecosystems 3 1.1 Soils are Physically, Chemically and Biologically Complex 8 Part II Introductory Methods in Soil and Plant Analyses 15 2 Field Characterization of Soils to Establish Sampling Protocols 17 2.1 Soil Sampling Design and Methods 17 2.1.1 Introduction to Sampling Design 17 2.1.1.1 Accuracy, Bias, and Precision 18 2.1.1.2 General Considerations on Soil Sampling 20 2.1.1.3 Common Sampling Tools and Techniques 20 2.1.1.4 Soil Sample Preparation 21 2.1.2 Soil Sample Process Procedure 23 2.1.2.1 Sample Variability—Number of Samples Required 24 3 Plant Tissue Characterization 29 3.1 Tissue Sampling 30 3.2 Tissue Preparation and Laboratory Extraction 33 4 Introduction: Laboratory Practices 35 4.1 General Laboratory Protocol 35 4.1.1 Safety 36 4.1.2 Laboratory Water 37 4.1.3 Clean-up 37 4.1.4 Waste Disposal 39 Part III Soil Physical, Chemical and Biological Analyses 41 5 Methods for Analyzing Soil Physical Characteristics 43 5.1 Soil Moisture 43 5.1.1 Direct Methods of Estimating Soil Moisture and Soil Water Potential 46 5.1.2 Procedure to Determine Gravimetric Water Concentrations 47 5.2 Soil Bulk Density 48 5.2.1 Soil Bulk Density Methods 49 5.3 Soil Texture (Particle Size Analysis or Mechanical Analysis) 50 5.3.1 Soil Texture Methods 53 5.3.1.1 Soil Texture Procedure: Bouyoucos Hydrometer Method 56 5.4 Soil Water Potential 58 5.4.1 Pressure Plate Apparatus Procedure: SoilMoisture Release Curve 63 6 Soil Chemical Characterization 67 6.1 Soil pH 70 6.1.1 Measuring pH 71 6.1.2 The Care of pH Electrodes 74 6.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) 75 6.2.1 Saturated Paste Extract Procedure: Electrical Conductivity 80 6.3 Ion Exchange in Soils 82 6.3.1 Cation Exchange Capacity 82 6.3.2 Exchangeable Cations 86 6.3.3 Extraction Procedures for Exchangeable Cations and Cation Exchange Capacity 87 6.4 Exchangeable Soil Acidity 91 6.4.1 Extraction Procedures for Exchangeable Soil Acidity 92 6.4.1.1 Exchangeable Acidity (Barium Chloride—Triethanolamine Method) 92 6.4.1.2 Exchangeable Acidity (Potassium Chloride Method) 93 6.5 Extractable Inorganic Soil Nitrogen 95 6.5.1 Extraction Methods for Inorganic Soil Nitrogen 96 6.5.1.1 Single Extraction Procedure: Extractable Inorganic Nitrogen 97 6.5.1.2 Double Extraction Procedure: Mechanical Vacuum Extractor 98 6.6 Soil Phosphorus 100 6.6.1 Methodology for Measuring Soil Phosphorus 102 6.6.2 Procedure: Extractable Inorganic Phosphorus 108 6.7 Soil Carbon and Organic Matter 110 6.7.1 Dry Combustion Procedure: Total Soil Carbon and Nitrogen 112 6.7.2 Loss on Ignition (LOI) Procedure: Total Soil Organic Matter 113 6.7.3 Walkley-Black Procedure: Soil Carbon 114 6.8 Selective Dissolution of Iron and Aluminum 116 6.8.1 Extraction Procedure: Organically Complexed Iron and Aluminum 117 6.8.2 Extraction Procedure: Non-crystalline Soil Iron and Aluminum Oxides 118 7 Total Plant and Soil Nutrient Analysis (Digestion) 121 7.1 Wet Oxidation Method 121 7.2 Dry Oxidation Method 123 7.3 Total Dissolved Carbon and Nitrogen in Water 125 7.4 Modified Kjeldahl Digest Procedure: Sulfuric Acid Digest for “Total” Nutrients 126 7.5 “Total” Nutrient Analysis Procedure: Dry Ashing Followed by Nitric Acid Digest 129 7.6 Total Dissolved Nitrogen in Water Procedure: Persulfate Oxidation 130 8 Soil Biology Characterization 133 8.1 Soil Microbes 134 8.1.1 Archaea and Bacteria 135 8.1.2 Fungi 137 8.1.3 Soil Algae and Cyanobacteria (Blue-green Algae) 138 8.2 Methods for Determining Soil Microbial Diversity and Populations—Numbers and Biomass 139 8.2.1 Direct Culture, Microscopy and Image Analysis 139 8.2.2 Microbial Numbers and Microbial Biomass 139 8.3 Mycorrhizas 140 8.3.1 Types of Mycorrhizas 140 8.3.2 Sampling Mycorrhizas 142 8.3.2.1 Sampling Design 143 8.3.2.2 Collection of Root and Soil Samples 143 8.3.2.3 Storage of Samples 143 8.3.2.4 Determining Mycorrhizas in Samples 144 8.3.3 Determination of Mycorrhizal Fungal Species 144 8.3.3.1 Analysis of Sporocarps and Spores 145 8.3.3.2 Morphotypes of Ectomycorrhizas 145 8.3.3.3 Trap Cultures for Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi 145 8.3.3.4 DNA and Biochemical Techniques 146 8.3.4 Ectomycorrhizal Quantification 147 8.3.5 Identification of Ectomycorrhizal Sporocarps 150 8.3.6 Quantification of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Colonization 151 8.3.6.1 Staining 151 8.3.6.2 Grid-line Intersection Method with a Dissecting Microscope 152 8.4 Indirect Indices for Soil Biological Activity 154 8.4.1 Soil Respiration 154 8.4.1.1 CO2 Gas Sampling 155 8.4.1.2 The Soda Lime Technique 157 8.4.2 Decomposition Rates of Litter 159 8.4.2.1 Fine Litter 159 8.4.2.2 Woody Debris 161 8.4.2.3 Fine Woody Debris 161 8.4.2.4 Coarse Woody Debris (CWD) 163 8.4.2.5 Standard Substrates 165 8.4.2.6 Calculation of Decomposition Rates 167 8.4.3 Soil Enzymes 168 8.4.4 Functional Biodiversity—Phospholipid Ester-linked Fatty Acids (PLFA) and Substrate Utilization Profiles 169 8.4.5 Molecular Tools for Ecological Systems 170 8.4.5.1 DNA Extraction from Soil 171 8.4.5.2 PCR 172 8.4.5.3 Restriction Length Fragment Polymorphism RFLP 174 8.4.5.4 Primers 174 8.4.5.5 Gel Electrophoresis 174 8.4.5.6 DNA Sequencing 175 8.4.5.7 Metagenomics and Transcriptomics 176 8.5 Soil Invertebrates 176 8.5.1 Macrofauna with Emphasis on Earthworms 178 8.5.1.1 Extraction Methods 178 8.5.2 Mesofauna 180 8.5.2.1 Mites and Collembola 180 8.5.2.2 Enchytraeids 183 8.5.3 Microfauna 184 8.5.3.1 Protozoans 184 8.5.3.2 Rotifers 184 8.5.3.3 Tardigrades 184 8.5.3.4 Microfauna-Nematodes 185 8.6 Nitrogen Transformations 186 8.6.1 Nitrogen Fixation 187 8.6.1.1 Acetylene Reduction 188 8.6.1.2 N Accretion through Time 190 8.6.1.3 15N Based Methods 190 8.6.2 Denitrification 191 8.6.2.1 The Acetylene Inhibition Method 192 8.6.2.2 15N Tracer Methods 192 8.6.2.3 Direct N2 Quantification 192 8.6.2.4 Mass Balance Approaches 192 8.6.2.5 Stable Isotope Approaches 193 8.6.2.6 Approaches using in situ Gradients in Environmental Tracers 193 8.6.2.7 Molecular Approaches 193 Appendices 195 References 203 Subject Index 217 |
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